Interpersonal Trust Research Paper

1. A Theoretical Framework

The present examination of trust is guided by Rotenberg’s (1994) 3 (bases) × 2 (domains) × 2 (target dimensions) framework. According to Rotenberg (1994), there are three bases of trust: (a) reliability, which refers to the fulfillment of word or promise, (b) emotional trust, which refers to the reliance on others to refrain from causing emotional harm, such as being receptive to disclosures, maintaining confidentiality of them, refraining from criticism, and avoiding acts that elicit embarrassment, and (c) honesty, which refers to telling the truth and engaging in behaviors that are guided by benign rather than malicious intent and by genuine rather than manipulative strategies.

The three bases of trust are further differentiated with respect to two domains, cognitive affective and behavioral. The cognitive affective domain pertains to individuals’ beliefs attributions of the three bases of trust or of trust per se, and the emotional experiences accompanying those beliefs or attributions. The behavioral domain pertains to individuals’ behavioral tendencies to rely on others to act reliably, in an emotional trustworthy fashion and honestly. In addition, both the bases and domains are further differentiated by dimensions of the target of trust that are specific qualities of trusted–distrusted persons. The dimensions of the target of trust are (a) specificity, which ranges from generalized to a specific person, and (b) familiarity, which ranges from somewhat unfamiliar to very familiar. Included in Rotenberg’s (1994) framework was the principle that interpersonal trust has a strong reciprocal quality.

2. Trust Across The Lifespan

The following is a description of trust across the lifespan derived from an integration of Rotenberg’s (1994) trust framework and the relevant research.

2.1 Infancy (0–2 Years)

During this period, individuals establish (a) basic trust versus mistrust, according to Erikson (1963), (b) different qualities of attachment with caregivers, (c) working mental models of relationships (on the basis of the latter) that affect the development of subsequent social relationships (see Bernath and Feshbach 1995), and (d) shyness arising from temperamental differences. Accordingly, infants primarily base their trust on behavioral honesty in which they attempt to determine whether persons have benign rather than malicious intentions (behaviorally identified). Caregivers and others in the immediate family are the targets of infants’ trust but, as a result of internal working models and temperament, trust is generalized in a rudimentary fashion toward unfamiliar others.

2.2 Early Childhood (2–6 Years)

During early childhood, children develop (a) ‘theory of mind’ in which they understanding that persons can engage in acts of deception designed to evoke false beliefs in others, and (b) the ability to comprehend the link between promises and behavior by the conclusion of the period. During early childhood, children establish within a cognitive domain an honesty basis of trust, predicated on the intention to deceive, and a reliability basis of trust, predicated on the fulfillment of promises (see Rotenberg 1991, Bernath and Feshbach 1995). Because children’s social network grows, they extend interpersonal trust to a larger range of adults and peers.

2.3 Middle Childhood (7–12 Years)

During this period, parents continue to affect children’s social cognition and behavior and children become increasingly involved in school, peer friend-ships, and peer groups (primarily same-sex). Across this period, children demonstrate increasing sophistication in their reasoning about violations of social expectations and moral issues (see Kahn and Turiel 1988). As a consequence, children’s honesty, reliability, and emotional trust are (a) affected by parents’ trust beliefs and behavior, (b) an integral part of same-sex peer friendship, (c) part of same-sex peer group interactions, (d) linked to their reasoning about the violation of social expectations and moral principles (see Selman 1980, Kahn and Turiel 1988), and (e) associated with academic achievement (Rotenberg 1991, Bernath and Feshbach 1995). Because of the increasing exchange of intimacies among peer friends and peer group, an extensive emotional basis of trust is developed during middle childhood.

2.4 Adolescence (13–19 Years)

Adolescents’ sexual development, moral development, increased ability to comprehend abstract concepts, and their involvement in broader social networks and social events result in further changes in trust. As a consequence, adolescents’ trust extends to sexual matters such as birth control and the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS (see Lear 1997). Also, adolescents begin to include sociopolitical events and the moral issues pertaining to wider groups such as society (see Colby and Kolhberg 1987) in their trust domain (generalized unfamiliar others). As a consequence, adolescents’ trust is particularly susceptible to sociopolitical changes. For example, Hochreich and Rotter (1970) found that the trust beliefs of college students decreased from 1964 to 1969, spanning the social revolution of the 1960s. Adolescents’ trust in the establishment decreased (national and international politics, judiciary, the mass media) and in society in general decreased (the hypocrisy, self-seeking, and competitiveness of people in general). Adolescents’ trust may be a ‘barometer’ of social change.

2.5 Early And Middle Adulthood (20–29 Years And 30–55 Years, Respectively)

During this period, individuals most commonly become involved in extended romantic relationships and enter the workplace. Accordingly, trust during this period is highlighted by trust within the context of romantic relationships (Rempel et al. 1985). Individuals’ trust in marriage partners has been found to be associated with their love of their partners and the belief that partners are concerned about their (the individuals’) welfare (Rempel et al. 1985). This period is also marked by trust issues concerning superiors and co-workers in the workplace (Kramer and Tyler 1996). All bases, domains, targets, and dimensions of trust in Rotenberg’s (1994) framework are viable throughout the course of adulthood.

2.6 Later Adulthood (55–75 Years)

This period is marked by individuals’ concerns over quality of life and physical safety. Older adults’ trust centers on the extent to which their offspring (adult children), social networks, and social agencies will provide care and help to establish or sustain a satisfactory quality of life (Bierhoff 1992). During this period, individuals are concerned about their vulnerability to being victims of crime and thus their trust centers on their physical safety (Rotenberg 1990).

2.7 Very Old Age (75 + Years)

During very old age, individuals confront issues of distribution of inheritance and, as a consequence, reevaluate their trust in family members. They deal with the issue of their immortality and specifically whether the trust they place in family members and perhaps in society or mankind to construct a better world will be confirmed after death.

3. Directions For Future Research

The major problem faced by researchers is the lack of a coherent theory to guide the examination of trust, notably a theory that outlines the development of trust across the lifespan. This research paper marks one attempt at developing such a theory (see also Bernath and Feshbach’s (1995) theory of trust across childhood and adolescence). Nevertheless, a more structural model of trust development is necessary, one that predicts the relations between trust and other aspects of interpersonal functioning at each age period and predicts developmental changes in trust. Also, it is important to note that there is a scarcity of research on trust during the first (infancy) and the final periods (later adulthood and very old age) of development. Despite Erikson’s (1963) emphasis on trust during infancy, researchers have not attempted to examine that phenomenon directly. Rather, researchers have assessed trust indirectly, primarily as an implicit facet of the quality of attachment. Also, gerontologists are encouraged to examine a critical facet of interpersonal functioning during old age, that of trust.

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