Creativity Training Research Paper

1. Training As The Enhancement Of Potential

In the present context, ‘enhancement’ is best viewed as the fulfillment of potential. Such fulfillment may be intentional and systematic, as is the case in most experimental investigations of the topic and in those educational programs that attend to creativity. Enhancement also occurs in relatively unsystematic ways, as is the case in families or organizations which appreciate creativity but do not explicitly target original behaviors (Basadur 1994).

Defining enhancement as the fulfillment of potential allows all increases in creativity—systematic and unintentional, short-and long-term—to be recognized. It also circumvents the controversy over the nature and nurture of creativity. This is because most human potentials are both genetic and experiential, with experience (in the present context, the experience that leads to enhancement) working within genetic boundaries. Biologists refer to the ‘range of reaction,’ with the range genetically determined and the reaction within that range determined by the individual’s experience. In this light, the enhancement of creativity merely fulfils an individual’s genetic potential. Some will have more of that potential than others; not everyone can be Mozart or Einstein. Everyone can, however, fulfil his or her potential for original and creative expression. Given the importance of creativity for personal growth and social and technological evolution, we should consider carefully how best to fulfil the relevant potentials.

2. Enhancement Of Cognitive Components Of Creativity

There are various cognitive theories of creativity. Some involve basic process, such as memory and information processing, and some focus on higher-order thought, including problem solving, metaphor, and divergent thinking. Metacognitive processes are frequently involved in cognitive theories of creativity. This is because they refer to strategic and intentional operations, and creative work is often both of those. Many creative persons focus on doing what has not been done before, for example, or on stretching and extending ideas, approaches, or work into entirely new directions. They intentionally, and often strategically, target creative results.

As a matter of fact, given the intentionality assumed by all strategic and metacognitive efforts, it is likely that a count of all systematic enhancement efforts would show that the majority attempt to improve thinking by providing tactics. Table 1 presents a list of some common tactics.

Note that many of the tactics in Table 1 are interrelated. Many of them, for instance, involve some sort of change in perspective. This is true of points (a)–(h), (l), (m), (r), (t), (w), (x), and (z)—and the benefit of several others may follow from a shift in perspective. New perspectives break mental sets and routines, and thereby minimize the chances of fixity. Original ideas often result.

Several of the tactics focus on originality. This is because originality is necessary, though not sufficient, for creativity. Consider points (i), (j), and (t)–(v). Keep in mind, however, that original insights are not always creative. Some original insights are unusual, novel, or unique precisely because they are worthless or inappropriate. Creativity involves more than originality. Truly creative insights are original and some-how fitting or useful (Runco and Charles 1993).

One final note about the list of tactics given in Table 1. Some of them involve a problem, and others focus on a solution. It has been said that creative ideas require creative problems. Sometimes redefining the problem guarantees an original solution. With this in mind, it is not surprising that some tactics lead the individual to change the problem or its representation.

3. Problem Solving And Finding

There is a larger issue: namely that of the relationship of creativity with problem solving (and problem finding). Many definitions of creativity presume that it is a kind of problem solving. The alternative is that problem solving is sometimes creative, but that creativity may be involved when an individual has the need or urge for self-expression. In this alternative view, creative thinking and problem solving are sometimes unrelated; creative skills may be used for more than problem solving.

Tactics such as those listed above (and there are many others) are often included in the various systematic programs which are designed to enhance creativity. Synectics, for example, encourages the use of analogical thinking. It is easy to see the power of analogical thinking in inventions such as the steam engine (a tea kettle), Velcro (clingy burrs), and the airplane (birds, to whom the Wright brothers looked many times). Here again there is an alternative, which in this case is that some creative thinking uses analogical reasoning, and some does not.

There are many programs for enhancing creativity, in addition to synectics (see Meador et al. 1999). There is the Odyssey of the Mind, for example, Future Problem Solving, and Creative Problem Solving (CPS). The last of these is probably the best known. It relies heavily on brainstorming. When brainstorming, the quantity of ideas is targeted by a group; quality is de-emphasized. Judgment and evaluation are postponed, and ‘piggybacking’ (extending ideas given by others, stretching a line of reasoning) is encouraged. Empirical research on brainstorming suggests that it is only modestly effective (Rickarts and deCock in press). In fact, if an organization really needs a large number of ideas, they may be better off having individuals work alone. Brainstorming may be good for team building, but it does not seem to work as well as individual problem-solving. Too often, individuals in brainstorming groups loaf (‘social loafing’) and assume that others will do enough work to get the job done.

4. Information Processing

Enhancement efforts occasionally focus on basic facets of information processing. These efforts usually suggest changes in information transfer and say little about information storage (memory). Sometimes enhancement is expected to result when an individual stops treating information as factual in the static sense. This is another way of saying that the individual questions assumptions and changes his or her perspective. Information is mindfully examined and perhaps even altered, rather than merely transferred without question.

Other times, enhancement is expected when the individual is simply better informed, or at least has the most relevant data. Good information is very important for many creative solutions. It is, however, a matter of quality more than quantity. In fact, individuals can apparently have too much information! When this occurs, there is a kind of expertise that typically leads the expert to more assumptions and a reliance on routines (Rubenson and Runco 1995). These preclude mindful and spontaneous thinking. Creative thinking thus often requires an optimal amount of information; more is not always better. Perhaps it would be most appropriate to conclude that enhancement is most likely when the individual is informed but, in addition, avoids the assumptions and routines that may preclude original thinking.

5. Motivation

The best enhancement efforts communicate the value of creative solutions and ideas, in addition to simply showing how the individual or organization can be more original. They demonstrate why and how, as well.

This brings us to the motivational and attitudinal components of creativity. Many enhancement efforts attempt to change attitudes about creative work and assume that improved attitudes will motivate the person or organization to utilize the strategies that have also a part of the enhancement. Attitudinal changes may be necessary because people will need to expend effort to change their ways. They will need to break routines, to question assumptions, to take risks.

They may also assume that creative persons are eccentric, or even difficult to work with (because they do things their own way); and in this light, one of the critical attitudes targeted in enhancement efforts is tolerance (Richards in press). People in organizations wishing to increase innovation and creativity must tolerate independence, risks, and perhaps a lack of structure. Educators must tolerate divergence in the thinking of the students; and this is especially difficult, because so much of the educational curriculum (and assessment tradition) is convergent. Tests, for ex-ample, are most objective when there is one correct answer, rather than originality.

It can be very difficult to motivate an individual to do creative work. If that individual is already motivated, it may be a matter of supplying tactics, direction, or resources. But if the individual is not motivated, or motivated to work in other ways (e.g., ‘satisficing,’ or just getting the job done), the motivation to do creative work may be difficult to arouse. This is because creative efforts are typically intrinsically, rather than extrinsically, motivated. Extrinsic motivation may result from pay, reward, incentive, or the like—contingencies and promises made by others. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, comes from within. It is personal and independent of contingencies and promises. Moreover, extrinsic factors can under-mine intrinsic motivation. For this reason, the creativity that results from intrinsic motivation to solve a problem or express oneself can be lost if it is not respected and if an effort is not made to reinforce or redirect it. This can make enhancement very difficult. It means that enhancement usually requires that demonstrations and the like deal with impersonal examples. They may need to leave the application of the tactic by the individual to his or her own life to that individual.

6. Environmental And Interpersonal Factors

The need to respect intrinsic motivation and the need for tolerance in educational settings or organizations implies that there are interpersonal and contextual influences on creativity. Indeed, enhancement may result from the manipulation of context and inter-personal processes as much as from direct and explicit training.

In general terms, creativity is supported by environments which allow autonomy and which provide the resources and respect necessary for the individual to maintain independence of thought (Rickards and deCock in press, Rubenson and Runco 1995). Tolerance for autonomous and diverse work styles and interests may be necessary, and individuals may need time. Deadlines and imposed schedules can constrain thinking. Admittedly, there are individual differences. Some famous creative persons have claimed that they work best under pressure (e.g., with some competition).

Importantly, creative results are often unexpected. They are, after all, original, and/original results may be at best loosely associated with previous efforts. But the unexpected nature of creative insights means that there is a risk. Hence, a tolerance of risk, on the part of the individual and those working with the individual, is often necessary.

7. Conclusions

Enhancement may involve explicit instructions (e.g., ‘think of things no one else will,’ ‘find an analogy in nature’), or it may result from a particular environment, context, and interpersonal stance. Enhancement efforts may focus on the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, or attitudinal facets of the creative process. The cognitive facets may be the easiest to target (e.g., by suggesting tactics) and the motivational the most difficult. The most effective enhancement will take most or all facets of the creative process into account.

Educators or managers may recognize the need for enhancement efforts. They may investigate the pro-grams which are designed to maximize creative efforts, or they may take it upon themselves to create a stimulating environment and provide the respect, resources, and tolerance that will allow creative thinking. Enhancement is, however, probably most effective over the long run. Short-term programs may be effective, but they may fail to generalize and may not be maintained for very long. Creativity is the most likely when enhancement is supported over a long period of time. In this sense parents may be in the position to best enhance creative thinking. They can model creativity, provide opportunities for original problem solving and self-expression, and appropriately appreciate autonomy and risk taking—and they can do so for an extended period of time. If the benefits of enhanced creativity are recognized on a larger scale, by society as a whole, enhancement is virtually assured. If that occurs, parents, educators, managers, and supervisors will all tolerate, appreciate, and support enhanced creative thinking.

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