Animal Testing and Cardiovascular Diseases Research Paper

I. Introduction

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) stand as a formidable global health challenge, accounting for a significant portion of morbidity and mortality rates across diverse populations (Lopez et al., 2020). With conditions such as coronary artery disease, stroke, and heart failure at the forefront, CVDs pose a substantial burden on healthcare systems and society at large. As of 2017, CVDs were responsible for approximately 17.8 million deaths worldwide, highlighting the pressing need for comprehensive research efforts (Roth et al., 2017). This paper aims to underscore the profound significance of cardiovascular disease research in addressing this public health crisis. It seeks to answer a pivotal research question: How has animal testing contributed to our understanding of cardiovascular diseases and the development of potential interventions? To appreciate the gravity of this inquiry, it is essential to recognize the invaluable role that animal testing plays in the broader landscape of medical research. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the ethical, scientific, and societal dimensions of animal testing in cardiovascular disease research, with the subsequent sections delving into the historical context, methodologies, contributions, ethical concerns, and potential alternatives in this vital field of study.

II. Literature Review

Prevalence and Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Globally

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) represent a staggering global health challenge, with an immense impact on public health systems. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), CVDs are the leading cause of death globally, responsible for an estimated 31% of all deaths in 2017 (WHO, 2017). This prevalence is expected to rise as population growth and aging continue, placing an even greater burden on healthcare infrastructures worldwide. Moreover, the economic cost of CVDs is substantial, encompassing both direct medical expenses and indirect costs associated with lost productivity and disability (Benjamin et al., 2019).

Past and Current Research on Cardiovascular Diseases

Decades of intensive research have yielded significant insights into the pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatment modalities for CVDs. This body of research encompasses investigations into a wide array of topics, ranging from the genetic underpinnings of heart disease to the role of lifestyle factors like diet and physical activity in prevention (Benjamin et al., 2019). Additionally, the development of diagnostic tools, pharmacological interventions, and surgical procedures has significantly improved outcomes for CVD patients.

Limitations of Human-Based Research in Cardiovascular Studies

While human-based research remains crucial in cardiovascular studies, it has inherent limitations. Ethical constraints often prohibit invasive procedures and experiments that are necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of disease mechanisms. Moreover, human genetic diversity can complicate research outcomes, making it challenging to generalize findings to broader populations. These limitations necessitate complementary approaches, such as animal testing, to bridge the gap between bench research and clinical applications (Mann, 2015).

Ethical Concerns and Controversies Surrounding Animal Testing

The utilization of animals in medical research has been fraught with ethical dilemmas and controversies. Concerns range from animal welfare and suffering to the moral status of animals used in experiments (Beauchamp, 2010). These concerns have spurred rigorous ethical guidelines, oversight committees, and legislation aimed at minimizing harm to animals while preserving the essential role of animal testing in scientific progress.

Historical Context of Animal Testing in Medical Research

The historical context of animal testing in medical research dates back centuries. Pioneers like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch used animals to advance their groundbreaking work on infectious diseases (Rollin, 2007). As scientific methods evolved, so did the debate surrounding the ethics and necessity of animal experimentation. This historical perspective informs the contemporary discourse on animal testing, highlighting the complexity of balancing scientific advancement with ethical considerations.

In this literature review, we have seen that cardiovascular diseases pose a substantial global burden, necessitating robust research efforts. While human-based research has been instrumental, it has its limitations. The ethical concerns and historical context surrounding animal testing underscore the need for a comprehensive exploration of its role in advancing our understanding of cardiovascular diseases, which will be further examined in the subsequent sections of this paper.

III. Animal Testing Methods

Different Animal Models Used in Cardiovascular Disease Research

Animal models play a pivotal role in cardiovascular disease research, providing invaluable insights into disease mechanisms and potential therapeutic interventions. Several species are commonly employed in this context, each with its unique advantages and limitations. Mice and rats, due to their small size and genetic tractability, are frequently used for modeling various aspects of cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and hypertension (Patten et al., 2018). Rabbits, with their susceptibility to diet-induced atherosclerosis, have been instrumental in lipid metabolism studies (Rong et al., 2018). Large animal models such as pigs offer anatomical and physiological similarities to humans, making them suitable for cardiac device testing and translational research (Bish et al., 2015).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Animal Model

Each animal model in cardiovascular research presents a unique set of advantages and limitations. Mice and rats are cost-effective, reproduce quickly, and have well-characterized genetics, making them ideal for genetic studies. However, their small size limits the complexity of cardiovascular procedures that can be performed. Rabbits, while useful for lipid metabolism research, have limitations regarding the translation of findings to humans due to anatomical and physiological differences. Pigs, on the other hand, closely resemble human cardiovascular systems, but their size and cost can be prohibitive for some studies (Patten et al., 2018).

Specific Techniques and Procedures Used in Animal Testing

Animal testing in cardiovascular research encompasses a wide range of techniques and procedures. These may include surgical interventions such as aortic banding, myocardial infarction induction, and vascular grafting. Non-invasive imaging modalities like echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are also commonly used to assess cardiac function and morphology in live animals (Bish et al., 2015). Molecular techniques, such as gene knockout or overexpression, are employed to investigate the genetic basis of cardiovascular diseases.

Ethical Considerations and Regulations Governing Animal Experimentation

Ethical concerns surrounding animal testing have prompted the establishment of rigorous regulations and oversight mechanisms. Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) in the United States and similar bodies worldwide ensure that animal research adheres to ethical guidelines (Pound & Blaug, 2018). Principles such as the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) advocate for the replacement of animals with alternatives when possible, the reduction of animal numbers used, and the refinement of procedures to minimize suffering (Russell & Burch, 1959). Additionally, legislation such as the European Union’s Directive 2010/63/EU sets strict standards for the welfare of laboratory animals.

In this section, we have explored the various animal models employed in cardiovascular disease research, highlighting their respective advantages and limitations. We have also discussed the specific techniques and procedures utilized in animal testing and addressed the ethical considerations and regulations governing this crucial aspect of scientific inquiry. Understanding these elements is essential for a comprehensive evaluation of the role of animal testing in advancing our knowledge of cardiovascular diseases, which will be further examined in subsequent sections.

IV. Contributions of Animal Testing to Cardiovascular Research

Case Studies and Breakthroughs in Cardiovascular Research Facilitated by Animal Testing

Animal testing has played an instrumental role in numerous breakthroughs in cardiovascular research, advancing our understanding of disease mechanisms and guiding therapeutic development. One notable example is the development of statins, a class of drugs widely used to lower cholesterol levels. Animal studies, particularly in rodents and rabbits, demonstrated the efficacy of statins in reducing atherosclerosis, paving the way for their clinical use (Linton et al., 2002). Another significant breakthrough involved the development of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Animal studies, primarily in rodents, were pivotal in establishing the safety and efficacy of tPA thrombolysis, leading to its approval for human use (Hacke et al., 2008). These cases exemplify how animal testing has translated scientific discoveries into clinical interventions.

Animal Studies’ Contribution to Understanding Cardiovascular Disease Mechanisms

Animal models have provided critical insights into the intricate mechanisms underlying cardiovascular diseases. For instance, research in genetically engineered mice has elucidated the role of specific genes in cardiac development and function. Studies using animal models have unveiled the molecular pathways involved in atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, and heart failure (Houser et al., 2012). By manipulating genes or inducing specific pathologies in animals, researchers have dissected the cellular and molecular pathways involved in cardiovascular diseases, shedding light on potential therapeutic targets.

Role of Animal Testing in Drug Development and Testing for Cardiovascular Therapies

Animal testing has been integral to drug development for cardiovascular therapies, allowing researchers to assess safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics before human trials. The evaluation of new drugs for heart disease, hypertension, and arrhythmias often begins with animal studies. For example, animal models of hypertension in rats and mice have been used to test the effectiveness of antihypertensive medications like angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and beta-blockers (Carretero & Oparil, 2000). Furthermore, animal studies are vital in testing the safety and efficacy of cardiovascular devices, including stents, artificial heart valves, and pacemakers (Bish et al., 2015). These preclinical evaluations ensure that only the most promising treatments and interventions progress to human trials, minimizing potential risks to patients.

In this section, we have showcased how animal testing has contributed significantly to cardiovascular research by presenting case studies of breakthroughs, enhancing our understanding of disease mechanisms, and supporting the development and testing of drugs and therapies. These examples underscore the indispensable role of animal models in advancing cardiovascular science and improving patient outcomes.

V. Ethical Concerns and Alternatives

Ethical Dilemmas Associated with Animal Testing

The use of animals in research raises complex ethical dilemmas, primarily centered around animal welfare and the moral considerations of using sentient beings in experiments. Concerns include the potential for pain and suffering experienced by animals during experimentation, the moral status of animals, and the necessity of their use in research (Beauchamp, 2010). These ethical concerns have spurred ongoing debate and efforts to strike a balance between the pursuit of scientific knowledge and the ethical treatment of animals.

Efforts to Minimize Harm to Animals in Research

To address ethical concerns, significant efforts have been made to minimize harm to animals in research. Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) oversee animal research protocols, ensuring that they adhere to ethical guidelines and prioritize animal welfare (Pound & Blaug, 2018). Researchers are increasingly adopting techniques to refine experimental procedures, reducing pain and distress. For instance, the use of anesthesia, analgesics, and humane endpoints aims to minimize suffering (Russell & Burch, 1959). Additionally, advancements in animal housing and enrichment provide animals with improved living conditions.

Alternatives to Animal Testing, such as In Vitro and Computational Models

In response to ethical concerns and the desire to reduce the number of animals used in research, alternative methods have been developed. In vitro models, which involve testing on cells or tissues cultured outside the body, offer a promising approach. For cardiovascular disease research, human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be differentiated into cardiomyocytes, providing a human-based platform for drug testing and disease modeling (Burridge et al., 2016). Computational models, including computer simulations and data-driven approaches, offer another avenue. These models can simulate physiological processes and disease mechanisms, reducing the need for animal experimentation (Savadjiev et al., 2019).

Limitations and Feasibility of Alternatives in Cardiovascular Disease Research

While alternatives to animal testing hold great potential, they have limitations in the context of cardiovascular disease research. In vitro models may not fully replicate the complexity of cardiovascular physiology, and the ethical use of human cells and tissues also raises ethical questions (Carson & Li, 2016). Computational models rely heavily on accurate data and assumptions, which can introduce uncertainties. Moreover, regulatory agencies require rigorous validation of alternative methods before their widespread adoption (Rovida et al., 2015). Therefore, while progress has been made in developing alternatives, animal models continue to play a crucial role in cardiovascular research, particularly in complex studies involving the whole organism.

In this section, we have addressed the ethical dilemmas associated with animal testing, discussed efforts to minimize harm to animals in research, explored alternatives such as in vitro and computational models, and evaluated the limitations and feasibility of these alternatives in the context of cardiovascular disease research. Balancing ethical considerations with scientific progress remains an ongoing challenge in this critical field.

VI. Regulatory Frameworks and Oversight

Regulatory Agencies and Guidelines Governing Animal Research

The ethical use of animals in research is governed by a framework of regulatory agencies and guidelines aimed at ensuring the welfare of research animals. In the United States, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) oversee animal research protocols at research institutions. IACUCs are responsible for reviewing, approving, and monitoring all research involving animals to ensure compliance with federal regulations, including the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) and the Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (USDA, 2021; NIH, 2021).

In the European Union, the use of animals in research is regulated by the Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. This directive establishes stringent standards for the care and use of animals in research and requires member states to establish national authorities to oversee compliance (European Commission, 2010). Similar regulatory frameworks exist in other regions worldwide, each with its own set of guidelines and oversight mechanisms.

The Three Rs in Animal Testing

The principles of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) represent a foundational framework for ethical animal testing (Russell & Burch, 1959). Replacement involves seeking alternatives to animal testing whenever possible. Reduction emphasizes the use of the fewest animals necessary to achieve research goals, minimizing the overall number of animals used. Refinement aims to improve animal welfare by reducing suffering through enhanced housing, handling, and experimental techniques.

Effectiveness of Current Regulations in Protecting Animal Welfare

Current regulations and oversight mechanisms have made significant strides in protecting animal welfare in research. The establishment of IACUCs and similar bodies ensures that research protocols undergo thorough ethical review before approval (Pound & Blaug, 2018). The incorporation of the Three Rs principles has led to more ethical and efficient use of animals in research, reducing unnecessary suffering and minimizing the number of animals used (Balls, 2009).

However, challenges persist. The effectiveness of regulations depends on consistent enforcement and the ethical commitment of researchers and institutions. Concerns remain regarding the transparency of animal research and the potential for non-compliance. Furthermore, evolving technologies and alternative methods require continuous adaptation of regulations to ensure their ethical and practical integration into research practices (Rovida et al., 2015).

In this section, we have described the regulatory agencies and guidelines governing animal research, discussed the principles of the Three Rs in animal testing, and analyzed the effectiveness of current regulations in protecting animal welfare. Ethical oversight and adherence to these principles are essential to strike a balance between scientific progress and the ethical treatment of animals in research.

VII. Public Perception and Advocacy

Public perception of animal testing in cardiovascular research is a complex and evolving landscape, shaped by various factors, including ethical concerns, scientific understanding, and the influence of advocacy groups. This section delves into the diverse attitudes and perceptions among the public, the role of advocacy groups in shaping animal research policies, and notable instances of public outcry and controversies related to animal testing.

Examine Public Attitudes and Perceptions

Public attitudes toward animal testing in cardiovascular research span a spectrum, ranging from strong support to outright opposition. Understanding these attitudes requires consideration of several factors:

1. Ethical Concerns: Many individuals express ethical concerns about the use of animals in research, particularly when it involves procedures that may cause harm or suffering (Ormandy et al., 2009). These concerns are often driven by empathy for animals and the belief that alternatives should be explored.
2. Scientific Understanding: Public perceptions are influenced by their understanding of the scientific benefits of animal testing. Some recognize its crucial role in advancing medical knowledge and therapies, while others may question its necessity or efficacy (Hobson-West, 2007).
3. Transparency and Regulation: The level of trust in regulatory frameworks and oversight mechanisms can shape public attitudes. Confidence in institutions that enforce ethical guidelines may alleviate some concerns (Birke et al., 2007).
4. Media Influence: Media coverage plays a significant role in shaping public opinion on animal testing. High-profile cases and controversies often receive substantial media attention, which can influence public perceptions (Pound et al., 2014).

The Role of Advocacy Groups and Their Impact on Animal Research Policies

Advocacy groups dedicated to animal welfare have a significant impact on shaping animal research policies and public perception. These groups work to promote ethical treatment of animals in research and to advance the use of alternatives. Key roles they play include:

1. Awareness and Education: Advocacy groups work to inform the public about animal testing practices, its ethical implications, and potential alternatives. They aim to foster a more informed and critical public.
2. Lobbying and Policy Influence: Many advocacy groups engage in lobbying efforts to influence legislation related to animal research. They push for stricter regulations, increased transparency, and the adoption of alternative methods.
3. Monitoring and Accountability: These groups often monitor research institutions, expose violations of ethical standards, and advocate for penalties when necessary. Their vigilance contributes to the enforcement of ethical guidelines.
4. Funding and Support: Some advocacy groups provide financial support for research into alternative methods to animal testing. They aim to accelerate the development and adoption of more humane alternatives (Wilkinson et al., 2016).

Highlight Cases of Public Outcry and Controversies

Numerous instances of public outcry and controversies related to animal testing have garnered widespread attention:

1. The Silver Spring Monkeys: In the 1980s, the Silver Spring Monkeys case in the United States drew significant public outrage. It involved the alleged mistreatment of monkeys in neurological experiments, leading to increased scrutiny of animal research practices and calls for reform (Regan, 2004).
2. Huntingdon Life Sciences: The British animal testing facility, Huntingdon Life Sciences, faced vehement protests and campaigns by animal rights activists during the late 1990s and early 2000s. This activism resulted in debates about the ethics and regulation of animal research (Goodrum et al., 2004).
3. Cosmetic Testing Ban: Public pressure and advocacy efforts contributed to bans on cosmetic testing on animals in various countries, including the European Union. These bans reflect growing public sentiment against the use of animals for non-medical purposes (Doke & Dhawale, 2013).
4. Anti-Vivisection Movement: The anti-vivisection movement, dating back to the 19th century, continues to be a source of controversy. Activists campaign against all forms of animal experimentation, leading to ongoing debates over the ethics and necessity of animal testing (Dinello, 2011).
5. COVID-19 Research: The COVID-19 pandemic brought animal testing into the spotlight once again. Public discussions centered on the use of animals in vaccine development and testing, with varying opinions on the necessity of such research during a global health crisis (Barrett et al., 2020).

These cases illustrate the power of public opinion and advocacy efforts in influencing the discourse surrounding animal testing. They highlight the need for transparent communication, ethical considerations, and continuous efforts to address public concerns in the realm of cardiovascular research and beyond.

In conclusion, public perception of animal testing in cardiovascular research is multifaceted, influenced by ethical considerations, scientific understanding, and advocacy efforts. Advocacy groups play a pivotal role in shaping policies and public attitudes, while notable controversies and public outcries have prompted ongoing discussions about the ethical and scientific dimensions of animal testing. Balancing the pursuit of medical knowledge with ethical concerns remains a complex challenge in cardiovascular disease research and the broader field of biomedical research.

VIII. Future Directions and Recommendations

Propose Strategies to Improve the Ethical and Scientific Aspects of Animal Testing

1. Enhance Ethical Training: Researchers involved in animal testing should receive comprehensive training in ethics and animal welfare. This includes education on the principles of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) and the ethical considerations surrounding animal use (Ormandy et al., 2013). Continuous education and updates on ethical guidelines should be mandatory.
2. Promote Alternative Methods: Encourage research institutions and funding agencies to invest in the development and validation of alternative methods that can reduce the reliance on animals in cardiovascular disease research (Zhang et al., 2020). Support for initiatives such as in vitro models and computational simulations can expedite the transition away from animal testing where feasible.
3. Collaborative Research: Foster collaboration between researchers, institutions, and advocacy groups to facilitate the sharing of best practices in animal welfare and ethical conduct (Pound et al., 2014). Establish interdisciplinary committees that include experts in ethics, animal welfare, and cardiovascular science to review research proposals.

Suggest Ways to Enhance Transparency and Communication Regarding Animal Research

1. Transparency in Reporting: Researchers should be encouraged to provide comprehensive and transparent reporting of their animal experiments, including detailed methodologies, results, and ethical considerations (Kilkenny et al., 2010). This will allow for better evaluation of the scientific rigor and ethical conduct of studies.
2. Public Engagement: Promote public engagement and education initiatives that provide accurate information about the necessity and ethical conduct of animal research in cardiovascular disease studies (Hobson-West, 2007). Open dialogue and public involvement can help build trust and understanding.
3. Accessible Information: Ensure that research findings and outcomes are accessible to the public and include lay summaries alongside technical reports. Encourage researchers to publish their work in open-access journals to maximize transparency (Smith, 2012).

Discuss the Potential for Further Advancements in Cardiovascular Disease Research

1. Advancements in Alternative Models: As technology continues to advance, alternative models such as organoids and microphysiological systems (organs-on-chips) are likely to become more sophisticated and capable of replicating human cardiovascular physiology (Mills et al., 2017). Continued investment in these technologies can reduce the reliance on animal testing.
2. Personalized Medicine: The future of cardiovascular disease research may involve a shift towards personalized medicine. Advances in genetics and genomics can allow for the development of tailored treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup, reducing the need for animal models (Pereira et al., 2019).
3. Data Integration and Artificial Intelligence: The integration of large datasets and the application of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can accelerate cardiovascular disease research. AI can analyze complex biological data, potentially replacing some aspects of animal experimentation (Johnson et al., 2021).
4. Global Collaboration: Encourage international collaboration and data sharing in cardiovascular disease research. Collaborative efforts can lead to more robust findings and accelerate the development of new treatments and therapies (Habibi et al., 2021).

In conclusion, the future of cardiovascular disease research must prioritize both scientific advancement and ethical considerations. Strategies to improve the ethical and scientific aspects of animal testing include enhanced training, promotion of alternative methods, and collaborative research efforts. Transparency and communication regarding animal research should be prioritized through transparent reporting, public engagement, and accessible information. The potential for further advancements in cardiovascular disease research lies in technological innovations, personalized medicine, data integration, and global collaboration. By embracing these strategies and advancements, we can strive for a future where cardiovascular research is both scientifically robust and ethically sound.

IX. Conclusion

In the quest to combat cardiovascular diseases, this comprehensive examination of animal testing’s role in cardiovascular research has yielded several key findings and insights. Cardiovascular diseases continue to impose a substantial burden on global public health, emphasizing the urgent need for rigorous research efforts. Animal testing has undeniably played a pivotal role in advancing our understanding of cardiovascular diseases and the development of potential interventions.

Through a review of case studies and examples, it becomes evident that animal testing has been instrumental in translating scientific discoveries into clinical applications. From the development of life-saving drugs like statins to refining surgical procedures, animal studies have contributed substantially to cardiovascular research. Furthermore, these studies have illuminated the intricate mechanisms underlying cardiovascular diseases, enabling researchers to identify potential therapeutic targets.

However, this exploration has also underscored the ethical dilemmas associated with animal testing. Public attitudes vary widely, reflecting the complexity of the issue. Ethical concerns, scientific understanding, and the influence of advocacy groups all play a role in shaping these attitudes. High-profile controversies and public outcries have highlighted the importance of transparency and ethical conduct in animal research.

As we conclude, it is essential to reiterate the crucial role of animal testing in advancing cardiovascular disease studies. The undeniable scientific progress achieved through animal models cannot be overlooked. Nevertheless, a balanced approach is imperative. The ethical considerations surrounding animal testing should be at the forefront of research practices. Strategies to improve the ethical and scientific aspects of animal testing, promote transparency, and invest in alternative methods must be embraced.

In navigating the intricate landscape of cardiovascular research, we must prioritize both scientific advancement and ethical responsibility. By doing so, we can strive to achieve a future where innovative cardiovascular therapies are developed with a profound respect for the welfare of all living beings. This balance between scientific progress and ethical concerns will guide us towards a more compassionate and medically advanced world.

Bibliography

1. Balls, M. (2009). The Three Rs and animal experimentation: A brief history and how we arrived at them. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals, 37(4), 471-476.
2. Benjamin, E. J., Muntner, P., Alonso, A., Bittencourt, M. S., Callaway, C. W., Carson, A. P., … & Stroke Statistics, S. (2019). Heart disease and stroke statistics—2019 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 139(10), e56-e528.
3. Carson, F. L., & Li, Q. (2016). Antihypertensive drug effects on cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling in hypertensive heart disease. Hypertension Research, 39(5), 311-322.
4. Dinello, D. (2011). The beginning of the end for animal research. Humane Society Press.
5. European Commission. (2010). Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. Official Journal of the European Union, L276/33.
6. Hacke, W., Kaste, M., Bluhmki, E., Brozman, M., Dávalos, A., Guidetti, D., … & Toni, D. (2008). Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. New England Journal of Medicine, 359(13), 1317-1329.
7. Houser, S. R., Margulies, K. B., Murphy, A. M., Spinale, F. G., Francis, G. S., & Prabhu, S. D. (2012). Animal models of heart failure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation Research, 111(1), 131-150.
8. Kilkenny, C., Browne, W. J., Cuthill, I. C., Emerson, M., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Improving bioscience research reporting: the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research. PLoS Biology, 8(6), e1000412.
9. Mills, R. J., Parker, B. L., Quaife-Ryan, G. A., Voges, H. K., Needham, E. J., Bornot, A., … & Porrello, E. R. (2017). Drug screening in human PSC-cardiac organoids identifies pro-proliferative compounds acting via the mevalonate pathway. Cell Stem Cell, 24(6), 895-907.
10. Ormandy, E. H., Schuppli, C. A., & Weary, D. M. (2009). Public attitudes toward animal research: A review. Animals, 3(3), 391-408.