Daoism Research Paper

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Daoism is a philosophy that focuses on self-cultivation and finding value and purpose in this life. It developed into a philosophy of nature, a political philosophy, and a religion that has had a profound impact on cultural, social, and religious life in China. While Daoism changed and developed from its early days before the common era and throughout the centuries—and spread worldwide—it maintained its original position as the Way (dao) of conducting human life.

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One of the Three Teachings (sanjiao) of China (the others being Confucianism and Buddhism), Daoism is perhaps the most difficult to define. Strictly, Daoism is a religio-philosophical system developed during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE); broadly characterized, it is simultaneously an attitude toward life and a soteriological (salvation-oriented) tradition based on harmony with the dao (the Way), the immanent source of all existence and the path it lays for humans to follow. Daoism encompasses often-contradictory beliefs and practices, such as shamanism, alchemy, and martial arts. Traditionally, scholars distinguish between an original Daoist philosophy and a later Daoist religion, the former given greater legitimacy than the “superstitions” of the latter. More recently, this division has been challenged, and the development of Daoism is now described as a cumulative process integrating commonly held teachings and fundamental notions, particularly the unity of man and the natural order. The integrative character of Daoism and the unofficial nature of many of its sects make current estimates of its worldwide membership range widely, from 20 million to 55 million.

Most Daoist concepts come from Daoism’s foundational book, the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and Its Power). Although more likely a compilation developed over centuries and only finalized in the third century BCE, it has traditionally been attributed to Laozi (sixth century BCE), an archivist at the Zhou court. According to China’s first universal history (second century BCE), after observing the dynasty’s decline, Laozi headed west. Before leaving the empire, he was convinced to record his precepts. Only five thousand characters in length and divided into two parts, the Daodejing lays out Laozi’s definition of dao and his prescription for a “right” society in accord with it. It is a series of cryptic, short teachings, meant as a handbook for rulers in the art of governing in harmony with the universal order. Laozi’s teachings were expanded by Zhuangzi in an eponymously titled book (c. 330 BCE) that first presents Daoism as a philosophy for ordinary individuals. Using parables to demonstrate the relativity of all knowledge and values, the Zhuangzi levels social difference and, in contrast to Laozi’s writings, rejects all participation in society. It harks to a primitivist society where, free from the ethical dangers of the world, ultimate harmony with nature can be achieved. Together, the Daodejing and Zhuangzi outline Daoism as a metaphysical rather than humancentered philosophy, in which the ultimate end is wu (nonbeing), an emptiness through which dao can work unimpeded.




As a philosophy of life, Daoism is ingrained in Chinese culture, bridging the more rational Confucianism and the more metaphysical Buddhism. Daoism’s influence is clear in Chinese science and medical knowledge, which draw on its emphasis on harmony with nature and its practitioners’ belief that to understand nature is to glean insight into the universal order. Daoism has also shaped Chinese literary and aesthetic sensibilities. Its ideas have been acculturated into other Asian cultures, particularly those of Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, where they have influenced autochthonous traditions. It has also become influential in the West, offering an alternative spirituality through practices like taijiquan (tai chi) and feng shui.

Daoism and Chinese Syncretism

Though the division into the Three Teachings is practical for appreciating the differences between Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, the boundaries between them have never been sharply drawn. Rather, they are seen as complementary, pointing to the same goals: humankind’s full possession of its humanness and its immortality through harmony with dao. The Chinese share singular conceptions, most clearly that of dao, which means “road” or “way,” though it is also understood as “way to follow” or “rule of conduct.” The fluidity of the term allows for each of the Three Teachings to nuance its definition. The concept, however, shares a common cosmology, which describes the universe as a hierarchically organized mechanism in which the parts correspond to the whole. The world is divided into three spheres (heaven, Earth, and human), each with its own dao, mirroring one another in a macrocosm– microcosm relationship. Communication and harmony between these spheres is crucial to maintain a universal order constantly under threat. Chinese thinkers also see the natural order as manifested in simultaneously antithetical and complementary aspects, known as yin and yang, each of which cannot be defined without the other. Yin and yang encapsulate the relativity of all things, because any one thing can be either yin or yang in relation to another.

The complementarity of the Three Teachings’ foundational concepts is made apparent by efforts throughout Chinese history to integrate the Teachings into a single movement. But this complementarity must not be overstated; deep-seated rivalries for influence at court and over the masses existed among Confucians, Daoists, and Buddhists. Their differences were more than political; while sharing basic concepts, each adopted a distinct attitude toward life, society, and nature. Confucianism, for example, concentrates on creating an ethicopolitical system to shape a “right” society through propriety. Buddhism abjures Confucian social values, while espousing beliefs, like the illusory nature of the physical world, diametrically opposed to Daoist doctrine. For its part, Daoism represents a more personal and spontaneous approach to life than Confucianism, and a metaphysics more firmly grounded in nature than Buddhism. It builds upon collective concepts, elaborating them into a distinct “way.”

Basic Concepts of Daoism

Dao, as defined by Laozi, is a metaphysical principle, both the ultimate order of the cosmos and the source from which everything emanates. The term itself is a mere approximation, as Laozi admits: “I do not know its name; I call it the Way. If forced to define it, I shall call it supreme” (Daodejing chapter 25; these and subsequent quotations are from the Beck translation). Although the term was originally used to convey an object’s place in a hierarchical order, dao itself is outside that order. Not a creator, it is nonetheless the origin of all things in the hierarchy. For example, dao is not God (ti), but God originates in dao. One of its essential attributes is spontaneity. Although it is the ordering principle of the universe, “the Way never interferes, yet through it everything is done” (chapter 37).

Closely related to dao is the concept of de. Usually translated as “power,” de refers to the Way’s efficacy in the realm of the tangible. De is also “virtue,” not moral action but the power that the Daoist acquires by living in harmony with the universal order. Daoists approach de in three distinct ways: one aims, through meditation, at the conservation of the dao’s power as it flows through the body; the second, in contrast, seeks to increase de through various programs of movement, such as taiqijuan or kung fu exercises, which unblock the qi (life force or breath) and rejuvenate the body; the last offers the help of priests in managing de, because Daoist practices are efficacious only if consistently performed. Thus, Daoist priests, who understand the flow of qi, help the untrained to unblock its flow.

In the concept of de we see the interaction between dao and man. As a microcosm of the universal order, the body mirrors the plan of the cosmos; and the same forces flow through both. To Daoists, the metaphysics of dao and de explain and shape human ethics. The ethical ideal of Daoism is self-suppression— wu, or inner emptiness. As there is no thing other than emptiness at the core of the Way, so it should be in the human mind. One should be moved by instinct, not rational thought, like a child, embracing the spontaneity inherent in dao. Wu is outwardly manifested in wu wei, or nonaction, a concept that refers not to absolute inaction but to the absence of self-determined action for particular ends. Daoists use the metaphor of a river, malleable yet powerful enough to erode rocks, to explain the above. Wu wei is intrinsically tied to the concept of yin and yang, which makes it intelligible: since each action inevitably leads to its opposite, every deliberate intervention ends in failure. In contrast, nonaction leads to success. Even in following the Way, people should not consciously endeavor to do so, for striving results in straying from dao.

Daoists seek a return to a past prior to the corruption of civilization, advocating a primitivist society that follows the rhythms of nature. According to Daoists, the unity of the universal order has declined since the golden age, a fact elucidated by the short life span of man, who in the past supposedly lived hundreds of years. Zhuangzi explains that, attempting to stem the decline, rulers unsuccessfully interfered with the flow of dao, resulting in defiled purity and a useless search for knowledge. Two main doctrines follow: the espousal of laissez-faire government and the rejection of education. Laozi most clearly elucidates Daoist social ideals: “the more restrictions there are, the poorer the people; . . . the more clever cunning, the more contrivances. . . . Do not interfere, and people transform themselves. . . . Do not intervene, and people prosper” (chapter 57). The king’s wu wei must extend to the rejection of education. Laozi condemns even the desire for knowledge, because it leads to competition over status and profit. The ideal society has neither schools nor books; its people are simple in their true nature. Zhuangzi goes further: law and virtue must be excised, since good and evil, inevitably reverting to each other, are relative concepts. This relativity points to an emerging Daoist skepticism and leveling of moral distinction.

Historical Development

Daoism originated from the shamanic practices of the third millennium BCE. Exhibiting themes such as the search for harmony and immortality, in the first millennium BCE shamanism became associated with the fangshi, respected healers and diviners. During this period, Laozi’s mystical politics and anarchic ideals also developed, together with Zhuangzi’s emphasis on subjectivity and disregard for external behaviors. During the Qin and Han dynasties (221–206 BCE; 206 BCE– 220 CE), the Huang-Lao masters, adherents of Laozi’s precepts and his ideal government, gained influence at court. Although the emperor Han Wudi (156–87/86 BCE) established Confucianism as the state’s official doctrine, rulers privately practiced Daoism, seeking to emulate the semimythical Yellow Emperor.

Emergence of Religious Daoism

During the first century BCE, a messianic Daoism developed that was utopian in outlook and aimed at establishing an era of “great peace.” It inspired the Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans (184 CE), who sought to overthrow the Han dynasty. Although the rebellion was defeated, messianic tendencies remained within Daoism. The second century CE saw the emergence of religious Daoism in a new organization that brought temporal and spiritual powers together under the control of the Tianshi (Celestial Masters). In 142 CE, the now-deified Laozi is said to have given Zhang Daoling the definitive, “orthodox” doctrine to replace people’s contemporary religious practices. The doctrine sought, through rituals like confession, to expiate sins that resulted in disease. In 215 the Celestial Masters sect was constrained to submit to Cao Cao, founder of the Wei dynasty during the Three Kingdoms period (220–265 CE). The result was the official recognition of the Celestial Masters, who helped legitimize both the Wei and the succeeding Western Qin dynasty (265–316 CE).

The fall of the Western Qin to northern barbarians led to a migration southward, where the Wu dynasty (222–280 CE) arose. In the period of the Southern Dynasties, Daoism was influenced by the traditions of the lower Yangzi (Chang) River, particularly the belief in zhenren, pure immortals immune to the world’s decay. The immortals became models of attained agelessness, the realization of which was seen as possible through alchemy and magic. By the fourth century CE, this synthesis of the Daoism of the Celestial Masters and preoccupation with immortality led to the development of a competing sect, the Mao Shan school. In general, Daoism gained official support but not sole recognition in the South, while in the North it became the official religion of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534), whose rulers claimed to be deputies of Lord Lao.

Daoism from the Seventh Century

Daoism’s greatest success came with the reunification of China under the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), as it spread throughout the empire. The founder of the dynasty was believed to be Laozi’s messianic descendant, a notion which became part of official state ideology. Numerous temples and monasteries were built, and the Daodejing joined the Confucian classics as part of the civil-service exam. During this time, Daoist scriptures also attracted the attention of foreign rulers and were translated into other languages. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the Daoist canon was expanded and printed for the first time. However, with the decline of the first (Northern) portion of Song dynasty (1126), Daoism lost its place as the official religion. In the fray, several new sects developed. Of these, the Zhuangzhen (Complete Perfection) sect, noted for its ethical teachings, gained the favor of the Mongols and was thus able to challenge the Celestial Masters’ preeminence. The sect’s emphasis on asceticism and hygienic techniques to prolong life became one of the most important and prevailing currents in Daoism.

During the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), Daoists used their prominence in the north to lead a persecution against Buddhism, hoping to diminish its growing influence. However, the tide turned, culminating in the state-sanctioned burning of Daoist apocrypha in 1281. In the south, meanwhile, the Celestial Masters’ influence continued unabated, although challenged by newly developing currents in Daoism. These new currents embraced Neo-Confucian beliefs, which gained them the support of conservative officials and intellectuals.

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the elite became estranged from Daoism, and Daoism’s social status dwindled. The Ming elite held double standards in respect to Daoism: they still drew on its notions to justify their rule, but they put the religion under strict control, inhibiting its independent development. Stifled by the ruling class, Daoism flourished among underground religious sects. The rulers of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) saw Daoism as potentially seditious and started to suppress it, withdrawing most of its privileges. The religion continued to develop among minorities and the lower classes however.

Spread and Influence

With the exception of Taiwan, which saw an influx of Daoists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as part of mass migrations from Fujian Province in the southern mainland, Daoism has not spread systematically to other areas of the world. Its doctrines and practices, however, were absorbed into local traditions across East Asia and are now making inroads in the West. The seeming lack of an exclusive mythology, historical contexts, and personal references in Daoist scriptures has helped give them universal appeal.

Korea and Japan

Daoism arrived in the Korean Peninsula in 624 CE, when it was at its height at the Tang court. The emperor sent emissaries bearing the Daodejing and Zhuangzi to the three Korean kingdoms, two of which fully welcomed their teachings. In the kingdom of Koguryo, Daoist priests’ influence was such that many local Buddhist temples were made Daoist. The kingdom of Shilla sent scholars to China to learn more about the religion and included the Daodejing in the Shilla civil-service exam. Although a Daoism stressing self-discipline was popularized at all levels of Korean society, by the fourteenth century Daoism was in decline as Buddhism resurged. Further suppression came with the Japanese invasion of 1592, after which the vitality of Daoism as an independent religion faded. Yet Daoism’s influence in Korea is evident in traditional gardening and in the country’s flag, the central symbol of which is the Taeguk, representing the correspondence between heaven and Earth.

The Japanese first encountered Daoism in the seventh century CE. Early on, Daoism’s affinities with the animism of Japanese Shinto eased an acculturation of Daoist doctrines into Shinto traditions. The introduction of specific Daoist practices dates to the Heian period (794–1185), when Masters of Yin and Yang— diviners learned in the occult—gained influence at court. In the eighth and ninth centuries, practitioners of Shingon Buddhism adopted Daoist physiological practices and the belief in the immortals. Tendai Buddhists embraced Daoist magical arts and techniques for prolonging life. Daoist mysticism made its strongest inroads in Japan through its influence on the Zen schools of Rinzai and Soto, which were introduced from China in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and are still active today.

Daoism in the West

Western opinions of Daoism have changed from the days when the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci first visited China in 1582. Seeing Daoism as an obstacle to the spread of Christianity, Ricci allied himself with court Confucianism and decried Daoism as perverted paganism. This negative attitude persisted into the nineteenth century, when philosophers such as G. W. F. Hegel deemed it a throwback to philosophy’s infancy. However, popular nineteenth- and early twentieth-century writers such as Leo Tolstoy and Franz Kafka brought it to a broader audience, while thinkers such as the philosopher Martin Heidegger and the psychologist Karl Jung embraced its tenets as confirmation of their own subjective philosophies.

The Western interest in comparative studies has brought Daoism to the forefront. Daoist theories have infiltrated discussions of scientific subjects, while its doctrines serve environmentalists as an alternative philosophy with which to criticize Western attitudes toward nature. Daoism’s questioning of traditional authority and the substantial presence of women in institutionalized practice have also made it appealing to certain strands of feminism, which see in the interdependence of yin and yang a less divisive way to conceptualize gender. Daoism has also attracted attention at the popular level, its prescription for a simplified life appealing to those who seek to lessen the effects of technological dependence. For example, feng shui is used as a means to harmonize urban living with the energies of nature.

Daoism Today

With over eighty-six sects worldwide, Daoism is one of five sanctioned religions in the People’s Republic of China—the others being Buddhism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism. However, its relationship with the government is uncertain at best, since only two sects are officially recognized: the school of Complete Perfection and that of the Celestial Masters. Although the greatest number of Daoists live in China, Taiwan is the center of official modern Daoism and has been since 1949, when the sixty-third Celestial Master, Zhang En Pu, took refuge there. With millions of adherents practicing taijiquan, visiting Daoist temples, and studying Daoist healing methods both on Taiwan and on the mainland, the ultimate influence of Daoism in modern Chinese culture is unmistakable.

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