Media Literacy Research Paper

More specifically, it is education that aims to increase students’ understanding and enjoyment of how media work, how they produce meaning, how they are organized, and how they construct reality. Media literacy also aims to provide students with the ability to create media products. (cited in Tyner 1998, p. 119).

In the USA, where media literacy has generally not been part of the school curriculum, the Aspen Institute Leadership Conference on Media Literacy determined that Media literacy, the movement to expand notions of literacy to include the powerful post-print media that dominate our informational landscape, helps people understand, produce, and negotiate meanings in a culture made up of powerful images, words, and sounds. A media-literate person—everyone should have the opportunity to become one—can decode, evaluate, analyze, and produce both print and electronic media. (Aufderheide and Firestone 1993, p. 1).

Two other constructs are closely related to media literacy, sometimes used interchangeably with it, and prevalent in countries such as the UK, Australia, and Canada. ‘Media education’ is teaching about media, as distinguished from teaching with media. Ordinarily, media education emphasizes the acquisition both of cognitive knowledge about how media are produced and distributed and of analytic skills for interpreting and valuing media content. In contrast, ‘media studies’ ordinarily emphasizes hands-on experiences with media production. Both media education and media studies proponents intend to achieve media literacy goals through learning activities with young people.

Appropriation of the term ‘literacy’ for media literacy has been criticized. Some believe it inaccurately glorifies this newer literacy by connecting it with the older, culturally valued reading and writing of text (or print literacy, alphabetic literacy, or simply literacy). Others argue that being literate connotes achieving a state in which one is a passive user rather than a lifelong learner and enthusiastic media participant. Media literacy proponents contend that the concept is and should be related to print literacy and depicts an active, not passive user: The media-literate person is a capable recipient and creator of content, understanding sociopolitical context, and using codes and representational systems effectively to live responsibly in society and the world at large.

1. Need for Media Literacy

Media literacy, or media education, has been part of the scholarly literature since at least the 1950s. Then, as now, work has been stimulated by the realities of modern life. Media and technology are frequently used outside school and work. Much content is produced and used for entertainment more than information. Much is ‘low-brow’ popular culture. Much is visual or audiovisual rather than (or in addition to) text—the main representational system taught in school. All is created and distributed within particular sociopolitical and economic systems; often, profit-making is a primary goal. People like much of what media and technology offer and much of what can be done with them. Very often people accept content uncritically, apparently without taking account of the contextual factors in production, distribution, and interpretation and, for younger people, without understanding how production processes can create seemingly realistic or accurate content. The confluence of these realities has motivated scholars, educators, and public intellectuals to conceptualize and advocate for media literacy.

Today, in most developed countries, homes are full of media and technology. For example, a recent survey (Roberts et al. 1999) of a large nationally representative sample of US homes with children 2–18 years of age found the following:

(a) 99 percent of the homes had at least one television, 97 percent had at least one VCR, 74 percent had cable or satellite, and 44 percent had premium cable;

(b) 97 percent had at least one radio, 94 percent had at least one tape player, and 90 percent had at least one CD player;

(c) 69 percent had at least one computer, 59 percent had at least one CD-ROM drive, and 45 percent had access to the Internet; and

(d ) 70 percent had at least one videogame player. On average, children in these same homes were

spending somewhat more than six hours a day in their own personal nonschool uses of media and technology. Usage time was quite unevenly distributed:

(a) 42 percent with television and 13 percent more with other television-like media,

(b) 22 percent with audio media,

(c) 5 percent with computer technology,

(d ) 5 percent with videogames, and

(e) 12 percent with print media.

Children’s usage patterns changed somewhat with age, with respect to total time invested in, and distribution of usage time among, different media and technology. There were also some variations according to other demographic characteristics. Overall, however, these differences were small enough to be considered variations on a theme rather than different themes. The USA may be among the most media-saturated of cultures, but the general picture is not that different in other developed countries. Clearly, there is sample reason to argue that media literacy is needed in the USA and elsewhere.

Theoretically, media literacy could be a relevant concept and goal for every culture that has any representational system whatsoever. In fact, media literacy work ordinarily focuses on postprint media and technology and the content they convey. Except in the USA, media literacy is prominent in almost all developed countries and typically part of formal schooling. It is probably more common in countries in which media and technology purvey much popular culture and in those in which there is a marked presence of content originally produced elsewhere (most often, the USA).

2. Elements of Media Literacy

As an area of scholarship, advocacy, and action, media literacy is to a notable degree contested terrain. However, there are a few agreed-upon fundamental facts (paraphrased from Aufderheide and Firestone 1993):

(a) the content of media and technology is constructed;

(b) the content is produced within economic, social, political, historical, and esthetic contexts that have influenced the production;

(c) the interpretive meaning-making processes involved in content reception consist of an interaction among the user, the content, and the culture;

(d ) media and technology have unique ‘languages,’ characteristics which typify various forms, genres, and

symbol systems of communication; and

(e) media and technology representations play a role in people’s understanding of social reality.

Drawing on these facts, in something of a caricature, four ‘pure’ orientations can be found under the media literacy umbrella. As real people, media literacy leaders are a mix of these types, while typically favoring one orientation over the others or self-consciously combining orientations.

One orientation celebrates the richness that media and technology can bring to humankind. The production techniques, genres, and forms of media become the focus, along with storytelling and artistry.

Film studies, arts-based curricula, and hands-on production predominate in media education designed from this orientation; production is typically an important part of the curriculum. It is an orientation that has been in the field for some time and is likely to continue.

Another orientation reflects fear and dislike of media and technology. Content is believed to have powerful potential to affect the user. Most content (or most content that users select) is judged negatively.

The very act of using the medium or technology may be addictive. In this orientation, media literacy goals become those of protecting or ‘inoculating’ users.

Much media literacy work in the 1970s reflected this orientation, at least to some extent. Not so today.

Yet another orientation takes a more agnostic position about media and technology. Both good and bad uses and content exist; what is good and bad may vary among individuals and circumstances. Media literacy becomes self-awareness, good taste, good choices, interpretive tools and skills, an evaluative stance toward all content, and self-determination as both a user and creator of media and technology.

A final orientation reflects the recognition that cultural forces are at work with media and technology, privileging the views and welfare of some groups over other groups. Media literacy is participation in expanding the voices and visions available in media and technology and active resistance to any hegemonic influences. The dominant theoretical paradigm in this orientation is critical theory or cultural studies.

A critical component of media literacy is interpreting and creating messages conveyed in various ‘languages.’ Of these, the visual elements found in print, film, television, computers, and other media and technology have received the most attention. Visual literacy is needed to interpret, create, and control the effects of images—images alone and images combined with words; images one receives and images one creates. Particularly when images are realistic, as in much photography, film, and television, the naıve user may not realize how much these images too are constructed and must be interpreted. Visual literacy has a long history of its own, coming out of photography and film.

3. Relationship to Information Literacy

Although media literacy is broadly defined, work has tended to emphasize popular audiovisual media such as film and television. Recently, as use of computer-based technologies, the Internet, and the World Wide Web has increased, a related literacy, information literacy, has gained prominence. Whereas proponents of media literacy (including visual literacy and media education) come primarily from the fields of communications, media studies, the arts, education, and cultural studies, the most vigorous proponents of information literacy have been librarians and other information professionals. The American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy wrote: ‘to be information-literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information’ (American Library Association 1989, p.1)

At first glance, this short definition seems quite similar to a short definition for media literacy. Closer examination reveals notable distinctions. Information literacy assumes that one has an identified information need; media literacy does not. Media literacy issues apply when one is engaged with media and technology idly, for relaxation and for fun, as well as intentionally to learn something. Moreover, in contrast to information literacy, media literacy makes much of the fact that the content one encounters or creates is problematic and merits intelligent, critical engagement. Furthermore, that content utilizes a variety of representational systems that one needs to learn to interpret and utilize. Despite these differences, there are as well many similarities in the two modern-day literacies and several efforts to connect together.

4. Issues and Problems

The incomplete integration of various orientations into a cohesive conceptualization of media literacy is one issue or problem in the field. Beyond the basic facts presented earlier, conceptual differences abound. Differences can be productive, but many believe the field would benefit from a more coherent conceptualization, which would then support more cohesive advocacy and education efforts. Another problem arises from the fact that much media literacy work is action-oriented, developing media literacy goals and curricula, providing media education. With the exception of work in cultural studies and critical theory, there is too little scholarly and research-based understanding of what media literacy is and how it functions. Furthermore, too few media education programs have been seriously evaluated so that successful approaches can be replicated and less successful approaches improved. Finally, the field has done little to move from the user side of the equation to the medium side, to examine how media and technology themselves can promote media literacy via their system and or content characteristics.

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